Brief History of Rome - Revision history

Paulreed: /* The Roman Empire */

2019-10-12T15:46:26Z

The Roman Empire

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:46, 12 October 2019
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	Under the emperors high politics came to centre on two interconnected issues, namely the relationship of individual emperors to the political élite, and the imperial succession. Extreme tension between sections of the political élite and the emperor, expressed most dramatically in treason-trials and executions, became the hallmark of high politics under Augustus' immediate successors,		Under the emperors high politics came to centre on two interconnected issues, namely the relationship of individual emperors to the political élite, and the imperial succession. Extreme tension between sections of the political élite and the emperor, expressed most dramatically in treason-trials and executions, became the hallmark of high politics under Augustus' immediate successors,
	*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),		*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),
	*Gaius or [[roman::~~Caligula\|~~Caligula - Atrocities and Tortures]] (37–41),		*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula - Atrocities and Tortures\|Caligula]] (37–41),
	*[[roman::Claudius and his Four Wives\| Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and		*[[roman::Claudius and his Four Wives\| Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and
	*[[roman::Nero]] ([[date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.		*[[roman::Nero]] ([[date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.

Paulreed: /* The Roman Empire */

2019-10-12T15:45:41Z

The Roman Empire

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:45, 12 October 2019
Line 65:		Line 65:
	Under the emperors high politics came to centre on two interconnected issues, namely the relationship of individual emperors to the political élite, and the imperial succession. Extreme tension between sections of the political élite and the emperor, expressed most dramatically in treason-trials and executions, became the hallmark of high politics under Augustus' immediate successors,		Under the emperors high politics came to centre on two interconnected issues, namely the relationship of individual emperors to the political élite, and the imperial succession. Extreme tension between sections of the political élite and the emperor, expressed most dramatically in treason-trials and executions, became the hallmark of high politics under Augustus' immediate successors,
	*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),		*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),
	*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula - Atrocities and Tortures]] (37–41),		*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula\|Caligula - Atrocities and Tortures]] (37–41),
	*[[roman::Claudius and his Four Wives\| Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and		*[[roman::Claudius and his Four Wives\| Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and
	*[[roman::Nero]] ([[date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.		*[[roman::Nero]] ([[date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.

Paulreed: /* The Roman Empire */

2019-10-12T15:45:14Z

The Roman Empire

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:45, 12 October 2019
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	Under the emperors high politics came to centre on two interconnected issues, namely the relationship of individual emperors to the political élite, and the imperial succession. Extreme tension between sections of the political élite and the emperor, expressed most dramatically in treason-trials and executions, became the hallmark of high politics under Augustus' immediate successors,		Under the emperors high politics came to centre on two interconnected issues, namely the relationship of individual emperors to the political élite, and the imperial succession. Extreme tension between sections of the political élite and the emperor, expressed most dramatically in treason-trials and executions, became the hallmark of high politics under Augustus' immediate successors,
	*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),		*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),
	*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),		*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula - Atrocities and Tortures]] (37–41),
	*[[roman::Claudius and his Four Wives\| Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and		*[[roman::Claudius and his Four Wives\| Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and
	*[[roman::Nero]] ([[date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.		*[[roman::Nero]] ([[date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.

Paulreed: /* The Roman Empire */

2019-10-02T13:38:25Z

The Roman Empire

← Older revision		Revision as of 07:38, 2 October 2019
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	*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),		*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),
	*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),		*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),
	*[[roman::Claudius and his Four Wives Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and		*[[roman::Claudius and his Four Wives\| Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and
	*[[roman::Nero]] ([[date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.		*[[roman::Nero]] ([[date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.

Paulreed: /* The Roman Empire */

2019-10-02T13:38:03Z

The Roman Empire

← Older revision		Revision as of 07:38, 2 October 2019
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	*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),		*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),
	*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),		*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),
	*[[roman::Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and		*[[roman::Claudius and his Four Wives Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and
	*[[roman::Nero]] ([[date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.		*[[roman::Nero]] ([[date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.

Paulreed: /* The Roman Empire */

2014-01-14T22:09:52Z

The Roman Empire

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:09, 14 January 2014
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	*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),		*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),
	*[[roman::Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and		*[[roman::Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and
	*[[roman::Nero]] (date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.		*[[roman::Nero]] ([[date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.

	==The Flavian Dynasty and later==		==The Flavian Dynasty and later==

Paulreed at 22:08, 14 January 2014

2014-01-14T22:08:28Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:08, 14 January 2014
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	===The Myths===		===The Myths===

	The origins are based on two main legends, those of [[character::Aeneas]] and [[character::Romulus]] and [[character::Remus]], which were artificially combined at an unknown date (but certainly before ~~[[date::-0300\|~~300BC]]). Although both legends are very ancient, they are, unhistorical, although certain incidental details (e.g. the idea that Romulus founded his settlement on [[place::Rome]]'s Palatine hill) are consistent with the archaeological facts. The archaeological evidence now available shows that one or more villages were established on the hills of Rome (including the Palatine) from the end of the bronze age (c.1000 bc. At first these were like hill top settlements with hits, isolated communities etc. They grew in size with increasing trade, especially with Greek ''cuiteis''. Towards the end of the 7th cent BC. the forum was laid out as a public meeting place and monumental buildings made their first appearance. At this point Rome was transformed into an organized city-state.		The origins are based on two main legends, those of [[character::Aeneas]] and [[character::Romulus]] and [[character::Remus]], which were artificially combined at an unknown date (but certainly before 300BC). Although both legends are very ancient, they are, unhistorical, although certain incidental details (e.g. the idea that Romulus founded his settlement on [[place::Rome]]'s Palatine hill) are consistent with the archaeological facts. The archaeological evidence now available shows that one or more villages were established on the hills of Rome (including the Palatine) from the end of the bronze age (c.1000 bc. At first these were like hill top settlements with hits, isolated communities etc. They grew in size with increasing trade, especially with Greek ''cuiteis''. Towards the end of the 7th cent BC. the forum was laid out as a public meeting place and monumental buildings made their first appearance. At this point Rome was transformed into an organized city-state.


Line 67:		Line 67:
	*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),		*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),
	*[[roman::Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and		*[[roman::Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and
	*[[roman::Nero]] (~~date0054~~\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.		*[[roman::Nero]] (date::0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.

	==The Flavian Dynasty and later==		==The Flavian Dynasty and later==

Paulreed at 22:07, 14 January 2014

2014-01-14T22:07:13Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:07, 14 January 2014
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	After the chaos and brutality of Nero, order and stability were restored by [[roman::Vespasian]] (69–79).		After the chaos and brutality of Nero, order and stability were restored by [[roman::Vespasian]] (69–79).
	The new Flavian dynasty initiated by Vespasian was short-lived. His elder son Titus ruled for two years (79–81) and was succeeded by Vespasian's younger son [[roman::Domitian]] (81–96). Under Domitian, who liked to style himself ‘Lord and God’, tension quickly resurfaced. and in [[date::9/0096\|September 96]] Domitian was murdered in a palace coup. The senate nominated as his successor a leading, if elderly, senator [[roman::Nerva]] (96–8).		The new Flavian dynasty initiated by Vespasian was short-lived. His elder son Titus ruled for two years (79–81) and was succeeded by Vespasian's younger son [[roman::Domitian]] (81–96). Under Domitian, who liked to style himself ‘Lord and God’, tension quickly resurfaced. and in [[date::09/0096\|September 96]] Domitian was murdered in a palace coup. The senate nominated as his successor a leading, if elderly, senator [[roman::Nerva]] (96–8).

	The ensuing 90 years represented a high-water mark of stability. The succession problem was resolved by the chance that a series of emperors had no surviving sons. So Nerva adopted [[roman::Trajan]] (98–118). Trajan adopted [[roman::Hadrian]] (117–38), and Hadrian adopted [[roman::Antoninus Pius]] (138–61). All had been leading senators before their accession. In 161 Marcus Aurelius, adopted son of Pius, succeeded and immediately associated his adoptive brother [[roman::Lucius Verus]] (161–9) as co-emperor. The problem of the succession resurfaced. Marcus had a surviving son, [[roman::Commodus]]. Commodus was made co-emperor in 177 and succeeded in March 180. His reign reawakened political tensions. the rulers of Rome in the two centuries from the accession of Augustus achieved two great objectives. Militarily they further extended the empire and protected it from external assault. Politically they maintained uninterrupted administrative control over its vast territory. Fission and secession, the normal fate of great pre-industrial empires, was absent.		The ensuing 90 years represented a high-water mark of stability. The succession problem was resolved by the chance that a series of emperors had no surviving sons. So Nerva adopted [[roman::Trajan]] (98–118). Trajan adopted [[roman::Hadrian]] (117–38), and Hadrian adopted [[roman::Antoninus Pius]] (138–61). All had been leading senators before their accession. In 161 Marcus Aurelius, adopted son of Pius, succeeded and immediately associated his adoptive brother [[roman::Lucius Verus]] (161–9) as co-emperor. The problem of the succession resurfaced. Marcus had a surviving son, [[roman::Commodus]]. Commodus was made co-emperor in 177 and succeeded in March 180. His reign reawakened political tensions. the rulers of Rome in the two centuries from the accession of Augustus achieved two great objectives. Militarily they further extended the empire and protected it from external assault. Politically they maintained uninterrupted administrative control over its vast territory. Fission and secession, the normal fate of great pre-industrial empires, was absent.

Paulreed at 22:06, 14 January 2014

2014-01-14T22:06:27Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:06, 14 January 2014
Line 6:		Line 6:
	===The Myths===		===The Myths===

	The origins are based on two main legends, those of [[character::Aeneas]] and [[character::Romulus]] and [[character::Remus]], which were artificially combined at an unknown date (but certainly before [[date::-~~300~~\|300BC]]). Although both legends are very ancient, they are, unhistorical, although certain incidental details (e.g. the idea that Romulus founded his settlement on [[place::Rome]]'s Palatine hill) are consistent with the archaeological facts. The archaeological evidence now available shows that one or more villages were established on the hills of Rome (including the Palatine) from the end of the bronze age (c.1000 bc. At first these were like hill top settlements with hits, isolated communities etc. They grew in size with increasing trade, especially with Greek ''cuiteis''. Towards the end of the 7th cent BC. the forum was laid out as a public meeting place and monumental buildings made their first appearance. At this point Rome was transformed into an organized city-state.		The origins are based on two main legends, those of [[character::Aeneas]] and [[character::Romulus]] and [[character::Remus]], which were artificially combined at an unknown date (but certainly before [[date::-0300\|300BC]]). Although both legends are very ancient, they are, unhistorical, although certain incidental details (e.g. the idea that Romulus founded his settlement on [[place::Rome]]'s Palatine hill) are consistent with the archaeological facts. The archaeological evidence now available shows that one or more villages were established on the hills of Rome (including the Palatine) from the end of the bronze age (c.1000 bc. At first these were like hill top settlements with hits, isolated communities etc. They grew in size with increasing trade, especially with Greek ''cuiteis''. Towards the end of the 7th cent BC. the forum was laid out as a public meeting place and monumental buildings made their first appearance. At this point Rome was transformed into an organized city-state.


Line 66:		Line 66:
	*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),		*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),
	*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),		*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),
	*[[roman::Claudius]] ([[date::41\|41]]–54), and		*[[roman::Claudius]] ([[date::0041\|41]]–54), and
	*[[roman::Nero]] (~~54–68~~), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.		*[[roman::Nero]] (date0054\|54]]–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.

	==The Flavian Dynasty and later==		==The Flavian Dynasty and later==
Line 73:		Line 73:

	After the chaos and brutality of Nero, order and stability were restored by [[roman::Vespasian]] (69–79).		After the chaos and brutality of Nero, order and stability were restored by [[roman::Vespasian]] (69–79).
	The new Flavian dynasty initiated by Vespasian was short-lived. His elder son Titus ruled for two years (79–81) and was succeeded by Vespasian's younger son [[roman::Domitian]] (81–96). Under Domitian, who liked to style himself ‘Lord and God’, tension quickly resurfaced. and in September 96 Domitian was murdered in a palace coup. The senate nominated as his successor a leading, if elderly, senator [[roman::Nerva]] (96–8).		The new Flavian dynasty initiated by Vespasian was short-lived. His elder son Titus ruled for two years (79–81) and was succeeded by Vespasian's younger son [[roman::Domitian]] (81–96). Under Domitian, who liked to style himself ‘Lord and God’, tension quickly resurfaced. and in [[date::9/0096\|September 96]] Domitian was murdered in a palace coup. The senate nominated as his successor a leading, if elderly, senator [[roman::Nerva]] (96–8).

	The ensuing 90 years represented a high-water mark of stability. The succession problem was resolved by the chance that a series of emperors had no surviving sons. So Nerva adopted [[roman::Trajan]] (98–118). Trajan adopted [[roman::Hadrian]] (117–38), and Hadrian adopted [[roman::Antoninus Pius]] (138–61). All had been leading senators before their accession. In 161 Marcus Aurelius, adopted son of Pius, succeeded and immediately associated his adoptive brother [[roman::Lucius Verus]] (161–9) as co-emperor. The problem of the succession resurfaced. Marcus had a surviving son, [[roman::Commodus]]. Commodus was made co-emperor in 177 and succeeded in March 180. His reign reawakened political tensions. the rulers of Rome in the two centuries from the accession of Augustus achieved two great objectives. Militarily they further extended the empire and protected it from external assault. Politically they maintained uninterrupted administrative control over its vast territory. Fission and secession, the normal fate of great pre-industrial empires, was absent.		The ensuing 90 years represented a high-water mark of stability. The succession problem was resolved by the chance that a series of emperors had no surviving sons. So Nerva adopted [[roman::Trajan]] (98–118). Trajan adopted [[roman::Hadrian]] (117–38), and Hadrian adopted [[roman::Antoninus Pius]] (138–61). All had been leading senators before their accession. In 161 Marcus Aurelius, adopted son of Pius, succeeded and immediately associated his adoptive brother [[roman::Lucius Verus]] (161–9) as co-emperor. The problem of the succession resurfaced. Marcus had a surviving son, [[roman::Commodus]]. Commodus was made co-emperor in 177 and succeeded in March 180. His reign reawakened political tensions. the rulers of Rome in the two centuries from the accession of Augustus achieved two great objectives. Militarily they further extended the empire and protected it from external assault. Politically they maintained uninterrupted administrative control over its vast territory. Fission and secession, the normal fate of great pre-industrial empires, was absent.

Paulreed at 22:03, 14 January 2014

2014-01-14T22:03:52Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:03, 14 January 2014
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	===The Myths===		===The Myths===

	The origins are based on two main legends, those of [[character::Aeneas]] and [[character::Romulus]] and [[character::Remus]], which were artificially combined at an unknown date (but certainly before 300 bc). Although both legends are very ancient, they are, unhistorical, although certain incidental details (e.g. the idea that Romulus founded his settlement on [[place::Rome]]'s Palatine hill) are consistent with the archaeological facts. The archaeological evidence now available shows that one or more villages were established on the hills of Rome (including the Palatine) from the end of the bronze age (c.1000 bc. At first these were like hill top settlements with hits, isolated communities etc. They grew in size with increasing trade, especially with Greek ''cuiteis''. Towards the end of the 7th cent BC. the forum was laid out as a public meeting place and monumental buildings made their first appearance. At this point Rome was transformed into an organized city-state.		The origins are based on two main legends, those of [[character::Aeneas]] and [[character::Romulus]] and [[character::Remus]], which were artificially combined at an unknown date (but certainly before [[date::-300\|300BC]]). Although both legends are very ancient, they are, unhistorical, although certain incidental details (e.g. the idea that Romulus founded his settlement on [[place::Rome]]'s Palatine hill) are consistent with the archaeological facts. The archaeological evidence now available shows that one or more villages were established on the hills of Rome (including the Palatine) from the end of the bronze age (c.1000 bc. At first these were like hill top settlements with hits, isolated communities etc. They grew in size with increasing trade, especially with Greek ''cuiteis''. Towards the end of the 7th cent BC. the forum was laid out as a public meeting place and monumental buildings made their first appearance. At this point Rome was transformed into an organized city-state.


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	*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),		*[[roman::Tiberius]] ( ad 14–37),
	*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),		*Gaius or [[roman::Caligula]] (37–41),
	*[[roman::Claudius]] (~~41–54~~), and		*[[roman::Claudius]] ([[date::41\|41]]–54), and
	*[[roman::Nero]] (54–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.		*[[roman::Nero]] (54–68), the Julio-Claudian dynasty. This tension derived structurally from the claim that the emperor was only first among his aristocratic equals, from lingering republicanism, and from the absence of any established law of succession. Consequently leading aristocrats, especially if connected by blood or marriage to the imperial family, could be regarded as threatening an individual emperor's rule. The contingent factor of the personalities and backgrounds of the Julio-Claudian emperors sharpened this structural tension. So the suspicious Tiberius had become Augustus' chosen successor only by default after the death of Augustus' two grandsons; the autocratic Caligula; Claudius was completely without experience of public life at his accession; Nero came to power at the age of 16. Each turned to court-favourites to buttress his position. But the open use, especially, of imperial slaves and freedmen as confidants merely served to strengthen the antagonism of the political élite.