Brief History of Rome
The Origins of Rome
The origins two based on two main legends, those of Aeneas and Romulus, which were artificially combined at an unknown date (but certainly before 300 bc). Although both legends are very ancient, they are, unhistorical, although certain incidental details (e.g. the idea that Romulus founded his settlement on Rome's Palatine hill) are consistent with the archaeological facts. The archaeological evidence now available shows that one or more villages were established on the hills of Rome (including the Palatine) from the end of the bronze age (c.1000 bc. At first these were like hill top settlements with hits, isolated communities etc. They grew in size with increasing trade, especially with Greek cuiteis. Towards the end of the 7th cent BC. the forum was laid out as a public meeting place and monumental buildings made their first appearance. At this point Rome was transformed into an organized city-state.
Rome seems to have had a mixed population, including Sabines, Greeks and, it seems, large numbers of Etruscans. According to the sources the city was originally ruled by kings, but it is unlikely the first seven kings: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus is historical fact. With the exception of t Romulus these names may be those of genuine kings, but the notion that their reigns occupied the whole of the period from the 8th cent. bc to the end of the 6th is unlikely. There is some evidence that kings were elected and that the last two kings were tyrants. Tarquinius Superbus, was expelled in an aristocratic coup, and replaced by a republic under two annually elected consuls. The Fasti list the two consuls of each year going back to around 500 bc (the version of the Fasti Capitolini, places the beginning of the list, and therefore the beginning of the republic, in 509 bc;. A late 6th-cent. date for the beginning of the republic is confirmed by independent Greek sources.
During the early republic power rested in the hands of an aristocratic clique known as the patriciate. Most consuls were patricians, but it appears from the Fasti that they did not have a monopoly of political office until the middle of the 5th century. Debt, land-hunger, and food shortages are recorded as the main grievances. Some of these poorer citizens are said to have taken matters into their own hands in 494 bc, when they withdrew from the city and formed their own alternative state. The plebs, formed an assembly , elected their own officers , and set up their own cult. For the next two centuries this plebeian organization fought to improve the lot of its members.
In 367 bc the Licinio-Sextian laws made plebeians eligible for the consulship. This and similar measures the plebeians were gradually reintegrated into the state, a process that was completed in c.287 bc when plebiscites were made binding on the people and became equivalent to laws. Patricians and plebeians, formed a new ruling class based on tenure of office and descent from former office-holders. By the mid-4th cent. a hierarchy of magistracies had been established, resulting from the gradual creation of additional offices alongside the consulship: the quaestors (before 447), the censors (443), the praetor and curule aediles (367).
Roman Conquest of Italy
A more powerful and political Rome developed which began to flex this power beyond the limits of the city. At first the conquests were aimed at neutralizing the threat from outside tribes sacking ad tooting Rome but soon became expansionary in nature. For instance Pompeii was a Samnite strong that was eventually defeated. As there victories became more widespread only the Greek strongholds of the south held out. The defeat of Pyrrhus in 275 was a turning-point, not only because it was virtually the final act in the Roman conquest of Italy , but because it brought Rome to the attention of a wider world; the defeat of a powerful king created a sensation in the Hellenistic east. A new world power had emerged. The success of the conquests can be attributed to building powerful alliances and sharing the spoils of the wars with their partners
Early Roman Conquests of Overseas Provinces
The Romans embarked on a major overseas war, when they challenged the Carthaginians for the control of Sicily. In spite of immense losses Rome finally emerged as the victor in this First Punic War (264–241 bc), and Sicily became the first province. A second was added shortly afterwards, when Sardinia was seized from an enfeebled Carthage (238). Twenty years later the Second Punic War began when the Romans declared war over the Saguntum affair and Hannibal invaded Italy (218). In spite of spectacular victories in the field Hannibal failed to win over Rome's Italian allies, most of whom remained loyal, and was gradually worn down; he withdrew from Italy in 204 and was finally defeated at Zama in 202.
Rome got involved in wars in Spain and southern Gaul, notably Provence. There also wenEast and after successes in the Adriatic confronted Greek forces. There were three Macedonian Wars and defeated Philip. Rome now directly ruled many Greek cities. The Romans emphasized their dominance by ruthlessness, the most brutal example of which was the destruction of Corinth in 146 bc. In the same year Carthage was destroyed after a Third Punic War (149–146), and its territory became the Roman province of Africa) Further annexations occurred in Asia.
Life back in Rome
The victories had a dramatic effect on Roman life. Architecture and the visual arts flourished, as the Romans imitated all the trappings of Greek civilization. One of the results was the development of Roman literature on the Greek model, including drama, epic poetry, and, not least, historiography.
Land reform became a major issue. The Rich expanded there houses in to large landed estates worked by slaves. Small landowners were forced out and lived in penury. This lead to doscontent and impacted the Romans ability to riase an effectiuve army. Gaius introcuded land reform. His aim was to ensure that all citizens, not just the ruling class, should benefit from the proceeds of empire. These gains were short lived and were repealed later.
Sulla, the consul of 88, was appointed by the senate to lead an expedition against Mithradates. After a series of extremely bloody encounters, Sulla emerged victorious and set himself up as dictator in 81. He purged his opponents by means of the notorious proscriptions and attempted to reform the constitution. A fresh series of military crises in the 70s (see Sertorius, Quintus) brought the popular generals Pompey and Crassus to power. As consuls in 70 they repealed most of Sulla's laws and restored the powers of the tribunes.
Pompey and Caesar
After a series of milatary victoeires, In 62 Pompey returned, a conquering hero, to a magnificent triumph. However, the optimates (the conservative ruling class), led by Lucullus and Cato the Younger, frustrated his efforts to gain the land allotments he had promised as a reward for his veterans. The effect was to drive Pompey into an informal pact with Crassus and Caesar, sometimes called (in modern books, not in the ancient sources) the First Triumvirate. This alliance proved irresistible. Pompey had overwhelming popular support, Crassus had unlimited money, and Caesar, who was even more unscrupulous than his partners, turned out to have the brains. As consul in 59 Caesar enacted all the measures his partners wanted, and rewarded himself with a special command in Gaul, which he proceeded to conquer in a brilliant and brutal campaign (58–51 bc).
In 52 Pompey was appointed sole consul when riots prevented elections. By this time relations between Pompey and Caesar were becoming strained (Crassus had been killed in battle in 53). Fear of Caesar drove Pompey and the optimates closer together, as they attempted to frustrate Caesar's aim of passing directly from his Gallic command to a second consulship. Caesar refused to lay down his arms, and in 49 he invaded Italy at the head of an army that plunged the empire into civil war. Pompey, who presented himself as defender of the republic, had some initial successes, but was eventually beaten at Pharsalus (48), and was murdered after fleeing to Egypt. Caesar then overcame the republicans in Africa and Spain, before returning to Italy where he became consul and dictator for life.
Caesar embarked on a series of grandiose and visionary schemes, but his monarchical tendencies went against republican tradition and offended the nobles. On 15 March, 44 bc, he was stabbed to death by a group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius. The conspirators were unable to restore the republic, however, because Caesar's chief aides, Mark Antony and Lepidus, had the support of his armies; in 43 they joined together with Caesar's heir, the 19-year-old Caesar Octavian , to form a Triumvirate whereupon they divided the empire between them, and purged their opponents (including Cicero) by reviving Sulla's device of proscriptions. Lepidus was soon squeezed out, and the empire was uneasily divided between Octavian and Antony until 31 bc, when the issue was finally decided in Octavian's favour at the battle of Actium. Mark Antony and his mistress Cleopatra VII committed suicide, leaving Octavian in complete control of the Roman empire.
